加瓜海脊铁锰结壳的年龄及其定年方法适用性比较

罗顺开; 周怀阳; 赵国庆; 袁伟

doi:10.16562/j.cnki.0256-1492.2021070502

加瓜海脊铁锰结壳的年龄及其定年方法适用性比较

1.
同济大学海洋地质国家重点实验室，上海 200092

2.
中国科学院地球环境研究所，西安 710061

基金项目: 国家自然科学基金项目“南海深部计划重点项目”（91428207）

详细信息

作者简介: 罗顺开（1995—），男，硕士研究生，海洋科学专业，E-mail：1176298753@qq.com

通讯作者: 周怀阳（1961—），男，博导，教授，从事海洋化学研究，E-mail：Zhouhy@tongji.edu.cn

中图分类号: P736.4

收稿日期: 2021-07-05

修回日期: 2021-08-08

刊出日期: 2022-02-28

Age of a Fe-Mn crust on the Gagua Ridge and applicability studies of dating methods

1.
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China

2.
Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Science, Xi'an 710061, China

More Information

Corresponding author: ZHOU Huaiyang, Zhouhy@tongji.edu.cn

Received Date: 05 July 2021

Revised Date: 08 August 2021

Publish Date: 28 February 2022

摘要

摘要:
深海铁锰结壳的定年对其记录的百万年尺度古海洋环境变化研究至为关键。综合运用¹⁰Be/⁹Be、Co经验公式、²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th和磁性地层学，对采自加瓜海脊的铁锰结壳样品开展了系统的年代学对比研究。结果表明：相对于开阔大洋的铁锰结壳，较多的陆源物质输入造成了不同定年方法获得的年龄或生长速率的明显差异。其中，因为大量陆源物质携带的²³²Th以及对Co含量的稀释，铁锰结壳表层的²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th初始通量以及样品部分层位的Co通量出现显著变化，²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th定年方法与Co经验公式获得的结果受到碎屑物质的影响最为显著。尽管¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量也受到了陆源物质输入的影响，但是¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量变化很小，应该是本研究中最为可信的结果。而古地磁地层学定年法需要参考其他定年结果，最后也只能得到几个年龄控制点。最终得出加瓜海脊该铁锰结壳样品的年龄为7.09 Ma，而不同核素在铁锰结壳中的赋存状态应该是今后值得深入研究的一个重要方向。
- 铁锰结壳 /
- 定年方法 /
- 古地磁 /
- 同位素地球化学 /
- 加瓜海脊
Abstract:
Precise dating of deep-sea Fe-Mn crust is crucial to the research of paleoceanographic changes. In this paper, dating methods of ¹⁰Be/⁹Be, Co empirical formula, ²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th and paleomagnetic stratigraphy are comparatively used for systematical chronological studies of a Fe-Mn crust sample collected from the Gagua Ridge. Different growth rate or different age figures are observed as different dating methods are adopted due to large inputs of terrigenous materials. Co content is diluted by the excessive amounts of ²³²Th brought in by the terrigenous inputs, and the Co flux in certain layers and initial ²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th flux at the surface layer are both greatly fluctuated, which will render greatly influence onto the dating results of the two methods. Although the ¹⁰Be/⁹Be initial flux is also influenced by terrigenous inputs, it remains relatively stable. Therefore, ¹⁰Be/⁹Be can be regarded as the most precise dating method in the case. Paleomagnetic stratigraphy dating results may provide several age controlling points after referring to other dating results. Finally, the initial growth age of the Fe-Mn crust is confirmed as 7.09 Ma. For more precise age figure, further studies are required on the occurrence of nuclides in the Fe-Mn crust.
- Fe-Mn crust /
- dating methods /
- paleomagnetism /
- isotopic geochemistry /
- the Gagua Ridge

HTML全文

图 1 结壳样品同位素测量值随深度变化

Figure 1.

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

图 2 三种测年法（Co经验公式、¹⁰Be/⁹Be、古地磁地层学）得到的铁锰结壳生长速率与Al含量进行比较

Figure 2.

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

图 3 古地磁测试结果

Figure 3.

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

表 1 铁锰结壳的¹⁰Be/⁹Be测试结果以及¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量

Table 1. ¹⁰Be/⁹Be testing results of Fe-Mn crust and initial flux of ¹⁰Be/⁹Be

序号	矫正深度/mm	¹⁰Be/⁹Be/10⁻¹⁰	年龄/Ma	(¹⁰Be/⁹Be)_初始通量/10⁻¹⁰
Dive08-1	0.50	1.535	0.080	1.598
Dive08-2	3.50	1.208	0.560	1.598
Dive08-3	6.50	0.564	2.085	1.599
Dive08-4	11.75	0.439	2.589	1.601
Dive08-5	16.25	0.273	3.544	1.604
Dive08-6	20.75	0.239	3.814	1.605
Dive08-7	25.00	0.187	4.299	1.606
Dive08-8	28.25	0.137	4.923	1.606
Dive08-9	32.50	0.125	5.110	1.607
Dive08-10	36.00	0.113	5.306	1.609
Dive08-11	39.25	0.081	5.989	1.608
空白样		0.002

下载: 导出CSV

表 2 结壳表层²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th测试结果以及²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th初始通量

Table 2. Experimental results of ²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th and initial flux of ²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th

序号	深度/mm	质量/g	²³⁸U /(μg/kg)	²³⁰Th / ²³²Th/原子数×10⁻⁶	²³⁰Th / ²³⁸U	²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th	年龄/Ma	(²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th)₀
D08-1	0.08	0.023100	7684.3±36.7	159.015159±3.348	46.7555±0.3114	30.01	0.01	32.25
D08-2	0.27	0.033700	7459.7±31.2	87.168225±1.812	31.1138±0.1780	16.60	0.03	21.29
D08-3	0.47	0.024700	7467.8±29.3	65.836530±1.362	22.5662±0.1255	12.67	0.05	19.49
D08-4	0.64	0.026800	7715.4±29.0	66.634394±1.405	21.3219±0.1441	12.85	0.06	23.20
D08-5	0.81	0.023200	7891.3±35.2	60.799142±1.278	17.5236±0.1188	11.83	0.08	24.95
D08-6	0.98	0.027800	7358.8±41.0	23.237013±3.394	8.7137±1.1560	4.74	0.10	11.71
D08-7	1.14	0.021000	8267.8±35.7	45.847210±0.963	13.5603±0.0882	9.05	0.12	26.03
D08-8	1.28	0.020000	6918.1±34.2	35.667330±0.779	11.4776±0.1039	7.12	0.13	23.27
D08-9	1.41	0.019300	6830.7±22.5	37.542399±0.865	12.3548±0.1423	7.45	0.14	27.53
D08-10	1.53	0.014500	6557.2±42.6	30.485152±0.682	9.8458±0.1022	6.16	0.15	25.28
D08-11	1.62	0.014000	10020.1±71.8	24.628982±0.533	7.5091±0.0642	5.10	0.16	22.89
D08-12	1.75	0.023800	7926.5±44.1	21.876682±0.489	6.3202±0.0604	4.63	0.18	23.34
D08-13	1.87	0.011200	8203.9±48.0	19.038096±0.428	5.5576±0.0583	4.10	0.19	23.05
D08-14	1.95	0.013800	6689.5±36.2	18.846383±0.411	5.5571±0.0508	4.05	0.20	24.62
D08-14R			6171.4±46.5	16.099030±0.356	4.5886±0.0463	3.56
注：(²³⁰Th_ex/²³²Th)₀代表初始通量，D08-14R为重复样。

下载: 导出CSV

表 3 南海和太平洋深层水¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量

Table 3. Initial flux of ¹⁰Be/⁹Be in SCS and Pacific

序号	年龄/Ma	¹⁰Be/⁹Be/10⁻⁹	(¹⁰Be/⁹Be)_初始通量/10⁻⁹
J158-1	0.390	5.160	6.270
J158-2	1.330	3.230	6.279
J158-3	2.170	2.130	6.300
J158-4	3.170	1.290	6.289
J158-5	4.520	0.660	6.318
05E-1	0.250	5.420	6.141
05E-2	0.550	4.650	6.121
05E-3	1.060	3.610	6.131
05E-4	1.870	2.400	6.110
05E-5	2.340	1.900	6.118
05E-6	2.71	1.58	6.121
MDD46-1-1	0.96	65.48	106
MDD46-1-5	1.370	68.32	135
MDD46-1-10	1.750	60.89	146
MDD46-1-15	2.320	47.56	152
MDD46-1-20	2.750	24.31	96
MDD46-1-25	3.190	19.79	97
MDD46-1-30	3.680	7.93	50
MDD46-1-35	4.150	11.10	88
MDD46-1-40	4.560	14.99	147
MDD46-1-41	4.650	14.29	146
注：J158^[41]和05E^[42]记录南海深层水¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量，结壳 MDD46-1^[40]记录太平洋深层水¹⁰Be/⁹Be初始通量。

下载: 导出CSV

表 4 全球大洋、边缘海结壳主微量元素平均含量

Table 4. Major and trace elements content of Fe-Mn crust from oceans and marginal seas

元素		大西洋	印度洋	南大洋	Non-Prime Zone	北太平洋Prime Zone	加瓜海脊*	菲律宾海盆	加利福利亚湾	南海**
主量元素/%	Fe	20.9	22.3	18.1	22.5	16.8	23.92	21.16	23.8	16.01
	Mn	14.5	17	21.7	23.4	22.8	18.59	5.08	19.5	15.43
	Al	2.2	1.83	1.28	1.8	1.01	5.80	4	1.79	2.02
微量元素/(mg/kg)	Co	3608	3291	6167	3733	6655	2258.95	1450	3131	1639.25
	Cu	861	1105	1082	1074	982	1077.06	815.3	383	484.88
	Ni	2581	2563	4643	3495	4216	2286.86	886.15	2269	2992.88
	Th	52	56	15	36	12	63.03	31.66	48	8.68
注：数据来自Chen^[28]以及本研究，*数据来自Guan^[54]，其他数据来自Hein^[1]。

下载: 导出CSV

参考文献(55)

[1]	Hein J R, Mizell K, Koschinsky A, et al. Deep-ocean mineral deposits as a source of critical metals for high- and green-technology applications: comparison with land-based resources [J]. Ore Geology Reviews, 2013, 51: 1-14. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.12.001
[2]	Hein J R, Koschinsky A. Deep-ocean ferromanganese crusts and nodules[M]//Holland H D, Turekian K K. Treatise on Geochemistry. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2014, 13: 273-291.
[3]	Koschinsky A, Hein J R. Marine ferromanganese encrustations: archives of changing oceans [J]. Elements, 2017, 13(3): 177-182. doi: 10.2113/gselements.13.3.177
[4]	Koschinsky A, Halbach P. Sequential leaching of marine ferromanganese precipitates: Genetic implications [J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1995, 59(24): 5113-5132. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(95)00358-4
[5]	Christensen J N, Halliday A N, Godfrey L V, et al. Climate and ocean dynamics and the lead isotopic records in Pacific ferromanganese crusts [J]. Science, 1997, 277(5328): 913-918. doi: 10.1126/science.277.5328.913
[6]	Burton K W, Ling H F, O'Nions R K. Closure of the Central American Isthmus and its effect on deep-water formation in the North Atlantic [J]. Nature, 1997, 386(6623): 382-385. doi: 10.1038/386382a0
[7]	Ling H F, Jiang S Y, Frank M, et al. Differing controls over the Cenozoic Pb and Nd isotope evolution of deepwater in the central North Pacific Ocean [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2005, 232(3-4): 345-361. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2004.12.009
[8]	Klemm V, Levasseur S, Frank M, et al. Osmium isotope stratigraphy of a marine ferromanganese crust [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2005, 238(1-2): 42-48. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2005.07.016
[9]	Klemm V, Frank M, Levasseur S, et al. Seawater osmium isotope evidence for a middle Miocene flood basalt event in ferromanganese crust records [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2008, 273(1-2): 175-183. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2008.06.028
[10]	王洋, 方念乔. 80Ma以来海水Os同位素组成曲线的精细特征: 中、西太平洋多金属结壳的记录[J]. 海洋科学, 2020, 44(9):21-28 WANG Yang, FANG Nianqiao. Precise characteristics of Os isotopic composition of seawater since 80 Ma: recorded in polymetallic crusts from CW Pacific [J]. Marine Sciences, 2020, 44(9): 21-28.
[11]	Cowen J P, Decarlo E H, Mcgee D L. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphic dating of a ferromanganese crust from Schumann Seamount [J]. Marine Geology, 1993, 115(3-4): 289-306. doi: 10.1016/0025-3227(93)90057-3
[12]	苏新, 马维林, 程振波. 中太平洋海山区富钴结壳的钙质超微化石地层学研究[J]. 地球科学——中国地质大学学报, 2004, 29(2):141-147 doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-2383.2004.02.003 SU Xin, MA Weilin, CHENG Zhenbo. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy for Co-rich ferromanganese crusts from central Pacific seamounts [J]. Earth Science—Journal of China University of Geosciences, 2004, 29(2): 141-147. doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-2383.2004.02.003
[13]	张海生, 韩正兵, 雷吉江, 等. 太平洋海山富钴结壳钙质超微化石生物地层学及生长过程[J]. 地球科学——中国地质大学学报, 2014, 39(7):775-783 doi: 10.3799/dqkx.2014.073 ZHANG Haisheng, HAN Zhengbing, LEI Jijiang, et al. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and growth periods of Co-rich crusts from Pacific seamounts [J]. Earth Science—Journal of China University of Geosciences, 2014, 39(7): 775-783. doi: 10.3799/dqkx.2014.073
[14]	任向文, Pulyaeva I, 吕华华, 等. 麦哲伦海山群MK海山富钴结壳钙质超微化石生物地层学研究[J]. 地学前缘, 2017, 24(1):276-296 REN Xiangwen, Pulyaeva I, LÜ Huahua, et al. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy of a Co-rich ferromanganese crust from seamount MK of Magellan Seamount Cluster [J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2017, 24(1): 276-296.
[15]	Han X Q, Jin X L, Yang S F, et al. Rhythmic growth of Pacific ferromanganese nodules and their Milankovitch climatic origin [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2003, 211(1-2): 143-157. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00169-9
[16]	Josso P, van Peer T, Horstwood M S A, et al. Geochemical evidence of Milankovitch cycles in Atlantic Ocean ferromanganese crusts [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2021, 553: 116651. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2020.116651
[17]	Ku T L, Kusakabe M, Nelson D E, et al. Constancy of oceanic deposition of ¹⁰Be as recorded in manganese crusts [J]. Nature, 1982, 299(5880): 240-242. doi: 10.1038/299240a0
[18]	Von Blanckenburg F, O'Nions R K. Response of beryllium and radiogenic isotope ratios in Northern Atlantic Deep Water to the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1999, 167(3-4): 175-182. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(99)00028-X
[19]	Somayajulu B L K. Growth rates of oceanic manganese nodules: implications to their genesis, palaeo-earth environment and resource potential [J]. Current Science, 2000, 78(3): 300-308.
[20]	方志浩, 屠霄霞, 乔志国, 等. 铁锰结壳年代学方法及其应用[J]. 海洋科学, 2019, 43(9):104-113 doi: 10.11759/hykx20190130003 FANG Zhihao, TU Xiaoxia, QIAO Zhiguo, et al. Review and application of dating methods of ferromanganese crusts [J]. Marine Sciences, 2019, 43(9): 104-113. doi: 10.11759/hykx20190130003
[21]	Crecelius E A, Carpenter R, Merrill R T. Magnetism and magnetic reversals in ferromanganese nodules [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1973, 17(2): 391-396. doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(73)90206-9
[22]	Oda H, Usui A, Miyagi I, et al. Ultrafine-scale magnetostratigraphy of marine ferromanganese crust [J]. Geology, 2011, 39(3): 227-230. doi: 10.1130/G31610.1
[23]	Noguchi A, Yamamoto Y, Nishi K, et al. Paleomagnetic study of ferromanganese crusts recovered from the northwest Pacific-Testing the applicability of the magnetostratigraphic method to estimate growth rate [J]. Ore Geology Reviews, 2017, 87: 16-24. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.07.018
[24]	Yuan W, Zhou H Y, Zhao X X, et al. Magnetic stratigraphic dating of marine hydrogenetic ferromanganese crusts [J]. Scientific Reports, 2017, 7(1): 16748. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-17077-8
[25]	Yi L, Medina-Elizalde M, Kletetschka G, et al. The potential of marine ferromanganese nodules from eastern pacific as recorders of earth's magnetic field changes during the past 4.7 Myr: a geochronological study by magnetic scanning and authigenic ¹⁰Be/⁹Be dating [J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Solid Earth, 2020, 125(7): e2019JB018639.
[26]	Ling H F, Burton K W, O'Nions R K, et al. Evolution of Nd and Pb isotopes in Central Pacific seawater from ferromanganese crusts [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1997, 146(1-2): 1-12. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(96)00224-5
[27]	Chen S, Yin X B, Wang X Y, et al. The geochemistry and formation of ferromanganese oxides on the eastern flank of the Gagua Ridge [J]. Ore Geology Reviews, 2018, 95: 118-130. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.02.026
[28]	Du Y J, Zhou W J, Xian F, et al. ¹⁰Be signature of the Matuyama-Brunhes transition from the Heqing paleolake basin [J]. Quaternary Science Reviews, 2018, 199: 41-48. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.09.020
[29]	Tu X X, Zhou H Y, Wang C H, et al. Basin-scale seawater lead isotopic character and its geological evolution indicated by Fe-Mn deposits in the SCS [J]. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 2020, 38(7): 876-886.
[30]	Cheng H, Edwards R L, Shen C C, et al. Improvements in ²³⁰Th dating, ²³⁰Th and ²³⁴U half-life values, and U–Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2013, 371-372: 82-91. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2013.04.006
[31]	Manheim F T, Lane-Bostwick C M. Cobalt in ferromanganese crusts as a monitor of hydrothermal discharge on the Pacific sea floor [J]. Nature, 1988, 335(6185): 59-62. doi: 10.1038/335059a0
[32]	Liu R L, Wang M Y, Li W Q, et al. Dissolved thorium isotope evidence for export productivity in the subtropical North Pacific during the Late Quaternary [J]. Geophysical Research Letters, 2020, 47(11): e2019GL085995.
[33]	Frank M. Radiogenic isotopes: tracers of past ocean circulation and erosional input [J]. Reviews of Geophysics, 2002, 40(1): 1001. doi: 10.1029/2000RG000094
[34]	Von Blanckenburg F, Bouchez J. River fluxes to the sea from the ocean's ¹⁰Be/⁹Be ratio [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2014, 387: 34-43. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2013.11.004
[35]	Beer J, Muscheler R, Wagner G, et al. Cosmogenic nuclides during Isotope Stages 2 and 3 [J]. Quaternary Science Reviews, 2002, 21(10): 1129-1139. doi: 10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00135-4
[36]	Frank M, Porcelli D, Andersson P, et al. The dissolved Beryllium isotope composition of the Arctic Ocean [J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2009, 73(20): 6114-6133. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2009.07.010
[37]	Suganuma Y, Yokoyama Y, Yamazaki T, et al. ¹⁰Be evidence for delayed acquisition of remanent magnetization in marine sediments: Implication for a new age for the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2010, 296(3-4): 443-450. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2010.05.031
[38]	Simon Q, Thouveny N, Bourlès D L, et al. Increased production of cosmogenic ¹⁰Be recorded in oceanic sediment sequences: Information on the age, duration, and amplitude of the geomagnetic dipole moment minimum over the Matuyama–Brunhes transition [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2018, 489: 191-202. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2018.02.036
[39]	Von Blanckenburg F, O’Nions R K, Belshaw N S, et al. Global distribution of beryllium isotopes in deep ocean water as derived from Fe-Mn crusts [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1996, 141(1-4): 213-226. doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(96)00059-3
[40]	Cui L F, Hu Y, Dong K J, et al. ¹⁰Be/⁹Be constrain of varying weathering rate since 5 Ma: evidence from a Co-rich ferromanganese crust in the western Pacific [J]. Science Bulletin, 2021, 66(7): 664-666. doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2020.12.022
[41]	Zhong Y, Chen Z, Hein J R, et al. Evolution of a deep-water ferromanganese nodule in the South China Sea in response to Pacific deep-water circulation and continental weathering during the Plio-Pleistocene [J]. Quaternary Science Reviews, 2020, 229: 106106. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106106
[42]	Zhong Y, Liu Q S, Chen Z, et al. Tectonic and paleoceanographic conditions during the formation of ferromanganese nodules from the northern South China Sea based on the high-resolution geochemistry, mineralogy and isotopes [J]. Marine Geology, 2019, 410: 146-163. doi: 10.1016/j.margeo.2018.12.006
[43]	Puteanus D, Halbach P. Correlation of Co concentration and growth rate: a method for age determination of ferromanganese crusts [J]. Chemical Geology, 1988, 69(1-2): 73-85. doi: 10.1016/0009-2541(88)90159-3
[44]	Wen X, De Carlo E H, Li Y H. Interelement relationships in ferromanganese crusts from the central Pacific ocean: Their implications for crust genesis [J]. Marine Geology, 1997, 136(3-4): 277-297. doi: 10.1016/S0025-3227(96)00064-3
[45]	周怀阳. 深海海底铁锰结核的秘密[J]. 自然杂志, 2015, 37(6):397-404 ZHOU Huaiyang. Metallogenetic mystery of deep sea ferromanganese nodules [J]. Chinese Journal of Nature, 2015, 37(6): 397-404.
[46]	Burton K W, Lee D C, Christensen J N, et al. Actual timing of neodymium isotopic variations recorded by Fe-Mn crusts in the western North Atlantic [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1999, 171(1): 149-156. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(99)00138-7
[47]	Neff U, Bollhöfer A, Frank N, et al. Explaining discrepant depth profiles of ²³⁴U/²³⁸U and ²³⁰Thexc in Mn-crusts [J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1999, 63(15): 2211-2218. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00135-0
[48]	Henderson G M, Burton K W. Using (²³⁴U/²³⁸U) to assess diffusion rates of isotope tracers in ferromanganese crusts [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1999, 170(3): 169-179. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(99)00104-1
[49]	Hayes C T. Marine thorium and protactinium distributions: Tools for past and present chemical flux[D]. Doctor Dissertation of Columbia University, 2013.
[50]	Claude C, Suhr G, Hofmann A W, et al. U-Th chronology and paleoceanographic record in a Fe-Mn crust from the NE Atlantic over the last 700 ka [J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2005, 69(20): 4845-4854. doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2005.05.016
[51]	Huh C A, Ku T L. Distribution of thorium 232 in manganese nodules and crusts: Paleoceanographic implications [J]. Paleoceanography, 1990, 5(2): 187-195. doi: 10.1029/PA005i002p00187
[52]	Hsieh Y T, Henderson G M, Thomas A L. Combining seawater ²³²Th and ²³⁰Th concentrations to determine dust fluxes to the surface ocean [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2011, 312(3-4): 280-290. doi: 10.1016/j.jpgl.2011.10.022
[53]	O'Nions R K, Frank M, Von Blanckenburg F, et al. Secular variation of Nd and Pb isotopes in ferromanganese crusts from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans [J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1998, 155(1-2): 15-28. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00207-0
[54]	Guan Y, Sun X M, Ren Y Z, et al. Mineralogy, geochemistry and genesis of the polymetallic crusts and nodules from the South China Sea [J]. Ore Geology Reviews, 2017, 89: 206-227. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.06.020
[55]	Yuan W, Zhou H Y, Yang Z Y, et al. Magnetite magnetofossils record biogeochemical remanent magnetization in hydrogenetic ferromanganese crusts [J]. Geology, 2020, 48(3): 1-1.